Lithium-ion batteries are utilized in an array of portable electronic devices due to lithium-ion batteries' energy densities compared to the other rechargeable batteries (i.e., lead acid batteries and nickel metal hydride batteries). However, power density of lithium-ion batteries is relatively low due to relatively slow lithium-ion intercalation processes in conventional anode materials (i.e., graphite). Due to the low lithium-ion intercalation potential (˜0.05 V) of graphite, the anode typically forms a passivation layer called a solid electrolyte interphase (“SEI”). Furthermore, slow lithium-ion conduction across the SEI lowers usable capacity of the lithium-ion battery when the lithium-ion batteries are charged and/or discharged relatively quickly.
Beyond conventional lithium-ion batteries, lithium-sulfur (Li—S) batteries are promising due to Li—S batteries' high theoretical energy density, low cost, safety, and inoffensive nature with applications of electric-based transportation and other emerging applications. However, practical applications of Li—S batteries are impeded due to the short cycle life and poor coulombic efficiency. These poor performances generally result from an electrically insulating nature of sulfur and a shuttling effect of dissolved lithium polysulfide (LiPS) species, which interferes with reactive lithium metal anodes.